January 2001
Energy and the Environment
Wisdom M. Dlamini

Global energy use has climbed steadily over the years as industrial economies have expanded; this rapid rise is expected to continue over the next several decades. It is estimated that energy use could increase roughly 40 percent between 1993 and 2010. Even if anticipated gains in energy efficiency from the adoption of new technology are factored in, energy use is likely to continue to surge beyond 2010 as well. Of course, aggressive steps to reduce energy use could change the course of these trends.

Human activities
The impacts of human activities are experienced, at least initially, at the local and regional level. Urban smog, the degradation of watersheds, and the loss of local wildlife habitat are examples. But some human impacts affect the Earth on a much wider scale. It is the scale of human activities, rather than the individual activities themselves, that poses the greatest risk to global resources. Greenhouse gas emissions from a single power plant hardly threaten the global atmosphere, but multiply these sources by several orders of magnitude and the combined effects become global in their reach. Today, carbon dioxide emissions from human sources-- mostly from the burning of fossil fuels-- average more than 7 billion metric tons of carbon per year and have begun to alter the dynamics of the worlds climate system. Over the past 25 years, global energy use has risen some 70 percent and is expected to keep climbing. Options, such as renewable energy sources, energy efficiency improvements, and even traditional nuclear energy, are available to keep up with the worlds power needs without letting greenhouse gas emissions to spiral out of control, but their development and use on a wider scale will require concerted action by the international community.

Energy conversion
Energy conversion significantly impacts several areas of concern from a health and environment point of view, including indoor and urban pollution, acidification, climate change, and land degradation. The situation in each of these areas implies a need for fundamental change of the energy system to reach the goals and objectives of the major conferences and environment-related conventions. Conventional energy production invariably results in the formation of toxic residuals with potential health impacts. To determine the health impacts, it is necessary to understand not only the potential environmental hazard of the pollutant, but also how it is transported through the ecosystem.

Some of Swaziland’s most serious environmental problems are associated with our use of energy. Coal and wood combustion in the townships, petrol and diesel use in vehicles for mass transportation, and over-exploitation of fuel-wood resources all result in serious, long-term environmental damage.

Pollution from coal use
Coal demand in Swaziland is met through imports from South Africa since most of the locally-produced coal is exported. The coal is used by local industries and coal consumption by households is minimal. Air pollution problems from coal combustion are serious. Medical studies are revealing increased rates of respiratory disease in residents in polluted areas.

Acid rain
Tall chimney stacks in big industries assist in releasing oxides of sulphur and nitrogen into the upper atmosphere where atmospheric conditions are more favourable for their dispersal and dilution. Although this reduces ground level concentrations of these pollutants, they may combine with moist air and rain at higher levels and cause acid precipitation in areas far from the source of pollution. Whilst Swaziland's coal has a relatively low sulphur content there is considerable concern about the environmental and economic impact of acid rain as a result of neighbouring coal-fired power stations in South Africa. Some of the effects can be seen around Bhunya where trees are affected by this rain.

Pollution from vehicles
Motor vehicle fumes make air pollution problems worse and are a principal cause of photochemical smog in cities. The introduction of unleaded fuel and the installation of catalytic converters, which will result in a significant reduction in the release of carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, is one good step towards addressing the problem. However, Swaziland lags far behind other countries (e.g. Japan, Germany) in legislation to control vehicle emissions. Solutions to transport pollution and vehicle congestion require long-term planning to introduce efficient public transport systems in our cities.

Deforestation
Another environmental concern associated with energy use is the reliance by the rural population on fuel-wood, once a renewable resource, but now being used at a rate much greater than that at which it is naturally regenerated This has resulted in serious land degradation across the country. Fuel-wood is an inefficient source of energy for cooking and heating and its use can cause increased respiratory illnesses. Poverty and lack of access to electricity is the main cause for the continued use of wood for fuel.

Global Warming
Swaziland uses a great deal of energy, very much more per unit of gross domestic product (GDP) than most other countries. The combustion of coal, oil and wood results in increased carbon dioxide production. This gas acts likes a greenhouse - it lets

short-wave, natural light through but traps out-going long-wave (infra-red or heat) radiation. The potentially devastating consequence is that the earth is slowly getting warmer, causing the climate to change and sea levels to rise. Although Swaziland produces only a small percentage of the total global carbon dioxide emissions, it does play a disproportionate role per person in contributing towards the greenhouse effect and global warming.

Hydropower
Hydro-electric power currently accounts for nearly 20% of the world electricity output. Most of the power generated in the country is from hydro-power stations.The world-wide technically usable potential is estimated to be seven times greater than today’s generation. However, the development of potential capacity entails a number of environmental hazards. The process of generating hydropower does not produce wastes or other harmful by-products. At the same time, the accumulation of a large, almost stationary body of water sets in motion a train of events, particularly in tropical areas, that may enhance the spread of infection and disease, including filiaris and schistosomiasis. Shallow waters associated with the shores of reservoirs can provide suitable breeding places for mosquito vectors of malaria. Dams also create new and favourable habitats for various kinds of vegetation, which in turn may render sizeable areas more attractive to disease vectors. In addition, dissolved minerals, silt, and organic matter brought in by in-flowing rivers, may alter the aquatic ecosystems and possibly cause algae blooms, and foster growth of snails, midges, and mosquito larvae.

Nuclear Energy
Electricity planners foresee that as electricity demand grows, very many more nuclear power stations will be built. Nuclear fission produces dangerous radioactive by-products. There is considerable concern about their safe containment in the case of accidents at nuclear power stations, the closing down (decommissioning) of old power stations, and the storage of highly toxic wastes. At present, low-level radioactive wastes are stored in sealed containers which are buried underground at disposal sites. These are not efficient and leaks occur with time and hence no long-term solution has been agreed on for the safe storage of high-level radioactive wastes, some of which remain harmful for thousands of years.

Pressure on ecosystems
Despite growing awareness and increasing investment in environmental protection, pressures on the worlds natural resources and ecosystems continue to increase rapidly. The impacts of human activities reach into every corner of the natural world. For instance, between one third of the Earth’s land surface has been substantially transformed by agriculture, urbanisation, and commercial activities of various kinds; about one quarter of all bird species have been driven to extinction; and more than half of all accessible surface water, as well as an enormous quantity of groundwater, is diverted for human uses. These uses have brought unquestionable benefits to human welfare. But the upshot of this growing human domination of the planet is that no ecosystem on Earth is free from pervasive human influence. Global forest cover, for example, faces an enormous pressure in both tropical and temperate regions from conversion to other land uses. Deforestation rates in many developing countries continue to increase, even as the condition of many forests in developed countries is degraded by air pollution. Risks to the world’s rich array of living species are also climbing. These threats to biodiversity are particularly intense in aquatic systems such as coral reefs and freshwater habitats in rivers, lakes and wetlands.

As a country needing rapid economic growth in the medium term to satisfy the country's developmental needs, Swaziland's potential contribution to global warming is an area of concern. Moreover, Swaziland is a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The over 150 countries which signed this Convention at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 seek to achieve its ultimate objective of stabilizing green houses gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-made) inteference with the climate system. This includes adopting policies and technologies designed to limit greenhouse gas emissions.

References
World Resources Institute, World Resources 1998-99- A Guide to the Global Environment (1998), UNDP, UNEP, WRI and the World Bank, Oxford University Press.

Swaziland Environment Authority. Swaziland Environment Action Plan (1997) Vol.1

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